NEWS..............

projects...........

Controlling of AC Lamp Dimmer through 

Mobile phone

The project aims in designing a system which is capable of controlling the   world gets more and more technologically advanced, we find new technology coming in deeper and deeper into our personal lives even at home. Home automation is becoming more and more popular around the world and is becoming a common practice.

The process of home automation works by making everything in the house

automatically controlled using technology to control and do the jobs that we would normally do manually. It is much easier to install home automation in a house while it is still being built, since you have the ability to put things inside the walls to save space Though, people who have houses already built can still have home automation done in a less intrusive ways.

The controlling device of the whole system is a Microcontroller. DTMF decoder and Triac to which AC lamp is connected are interfaced to the Microcontroller. The user need to call the mobile phone present in the system which will be in auto answer mode.

When the call got lifted, the user need to press the predefined intensity keys assigned to control the lamp dimming operation of AC lamp. This system also has an LCD display which shows the intensity level of the lamp. The Microcontroller used in the project is programmed using Embedded C language.A Triac and optically isolated diac based circuit controls the intensity of the high voltage 230volts lamp. This system also employs a zero crossing detector for smooth operation of lamp intensity. This project consists of a Microcontroller that takes input from mobile phone and processes the request. Then it processes the data and takes

necessary action and updates the status on LCD. The optical isolation system safeguards the microcontroller-based system from high voltages.

User can simply set the desired intensity with a mobile phone from anywhere in the

world. This system also provides security authentication to access this system. User has

to enter the password to get access this system.

Features:

1. Aims at energy conservation.

2. Provides user friendly graphical interface.

3. Provides fast access using mobile phone.

4. Device enable with zero crossing detector.

The project provides learning’s on the following advancements:

1. Characteristics of DTMF technology.

2. Conversion of AC supply to DC supply.

3. Interfacing DTMF decoder to Microcontroller.

4. Lamp dimmer circuitry.

5. Embedded C programming.

6. PCB designing.

The major building blocks of this project are:

1. Regulated Power Supply.

2. Microcontroller.

3. TRIAC.

4. LCD display with driver.

5. DIAC with optical isolation.

6. AC lamp.

7. DTMF decoder.

8. Crystal oscillators.

9. LED Indicators

Software’s used:

1. PIC-C compiler for Embedded C programming.

2. PIC kit 2 programmer for dumping code into Micro controller.

3. Express SCH for Circuit design.

4. Proteus for hardware simulation.

LATEST PROJECT..........BY IEEE

Getting a Handle on Projects That Serve the Under served

IEEE Launches Exhibits Program for Science Museums

What can science museum exhibits launched little more than a year ago teach knowledgeable science teachers? Why, how to use the exhibits to teach science.

The museum in question is the B.M. Birla Science Centre, in Hyderabad, India. In January 2011, IEEE launched several interactive science exhibits there to teach preuniversity students the fundamentals and applications of physics, computer science, and electrical engineering. Now, IEEE is hoping what it learned from developing those exhibits can be put to use by museums around the world.

To this end, the IEEE Hyderabad Section, IEEE Educational Activities Board, and B.M. Birla Science Centre held a symposium at the center in November that dealt with how to create interactive, relatively low-cost science exhibits. Those at the Birla center averaged about US $10 000 each, compared with the $100 000 or even $1 million typical of what science exhibits can cost.

Nearly 100 educators and museum staff from 12 countries on 5 continents attended the first IEEE International Symposium on Cost-Effective Museum Exhibits in Engineering and Applied Science (or Exhibits 2012, for short). Attendees came from such countries as Austria, England, Germany, the Philippines, South Africa, Sweden, the United States, and Uruguay. 

In his opening remarks, A.P.J. Kalam, president of India from 2002 to 2007 and a professor of aerospace engineering, emphasized the importance of expanding the reach of the exhibits beyond Hyderabad to help inspire future engineers, especially in rural areas.

“The value of science has to be propagated to people at large, and they should be made to realize the role played by science in their day-to-day lives,” said Kalam, who was named an IEEE honorary member in 2011. He praised the interactive, easy-to-understand exhibits at Birla, saying they inspire creativity and help to remove the fear and stigma that “science is hard.” Kalam suggested that creating similar exhibits at other museums “will lead to building a borderless world with the spirit of scientific excellence.”

SHARING SUCCESS
Two and a half days of presentations on 26 topics by educators, museum exhibit creators, and IEEE volunteers followed. They covered the value of exposing preuniversity students to science and technology in museums and the criteria for creating inexpensive exhibits; they also provided many details about the exhibits at the Birla center and other institutions. In addition to looking at cost, the discussions focused on interactivity, multimedia elements, and creating effective teachers' guides to accompany the exhibits.

A biometrics exhibit was one of the exhibits discussed in detail. As visitors enter, a station prompts them to have their photographs taken and their fingerprints and iris images recorded. Another station uses this information to match them with their photographs. An accompanying multimedia presentation describes the principles behind biometric identification and explains how the system links visitors’ prints with their photos.

Other exhibits held up as suitable models were on robotics, electro-optics, power and energy, and aerospace. All include hands-on activities and short videos, as well as teachers' manuals that prepare educators to answer students’ questions as they pass through the exhibits.

The symposium was well received, said IEEE Life Fellow V. Prasad Kodali, who cochaired the symposium: “There is already interest in duplicating some of these exhibits at other locations.”

Volunteers are preparing the next steps. A new IEEE exhibit covering fiber-optic communication is to open at Birla in March, and the hope is to hold a second symposium in two years. Visit the symposium website for more information on Exhibits 2012 and the  exhibits demonstrated at the event.

A CHANCE ENCOUNTER
The idea for the program was born in 2009 when Moshe Kam, soon to become 2011 IEEE president, visited Hyderabad, the capital and largest city in the southern India state of Andhra Pradeish. He was there in his capacity as a volunteer on the IEEE Educational Activities Board. Among the places he visited was the Birla center, which in addition to an entire floor devoted to the hands-on exhibits, has a planetarium and a dinosaur exhibit. More than 1000 preuniversity students visit the center each week.

Kam saw an opportunity to broaden the reach of the exhibits to cover such topics as electro-optics, modern communications, and robotics. He wondered whether IEEE volunteers could help create the hands-on exhibits. Volunteers from the IEEE Hyderabad Section, the IEEE Educational Activities Board, and Region 10 quickly pitched in. They designed five new exhibits to which the science center in 2010 devoted 5000 square feet of floor space in its newly christened IEEE Exhibit Wing. Eight more interactive exhibits came along in 2011, six designed by undergraduate engineering and high school students who were mentored by science teachers and IEEE volunteers from the Hyderabad Section.

“The exhibits had two objectives,” says Kodali. “One was to inspire precollege students to look at engineering and computer science as a career. The second was to really make the public aware of the context and application of electrical and computer engineering.”

With more than a dozen exhibits under their belts, the volunteers wanted to share their knowledge with others around the world and came up with the idea for the symposium. “We were making good progress, and breaking new ground,” Kodali says. “We felt it was time to exchange views with others who were working on similar programs and see about replicating our exhibits elsewhere.”

Mundra Thermal Power Station

Mundra Thermal Power Station or Mundra Thermal Power Project is located at Mundra in Kutch district in the Indian state of Gujarat. The power plant is one of the coal-based power plants of Adani Power. The coal for the power plant is imported primarily from Indonesia. Source of water for the power plant is sea water from the Gulf of Kutch.

It is the world's fifth-largest single location coal-based thermal power plant as well as India's largest operational power plant as per august,2012 and also in private sector, it is world's largest single location coal-based thermal power plant

Capacity

The plant hase nine power generating units, unit# 5 to 9 involves super-critical boiler technology.

In July 2012 Adani Power have requested Central Electricity Regulatory Commission to increase the power tariff due to increase in price of coal imported from Indonesia.

Stage	Unit Number	Installed Capacity (MW)	Date of Commissioning
1st	1	330	2009 May
1st	2	330	2010
2nd	3	330	2010 July
2nd	4	330	2010 Nov
3rd	5	660	2010 December
3rd	6	660	2011 June
4th	7	660	2011 October
4th	8	660	2012
4th	9	660	2012 March
Total	Nine	4620

TIMES OF INDIA

Mundra world’s largest coal-fired pvt power plant

                                                                                                              

MUMBAI: Adani Power synchronized the fifth unit of the Mundra power plant this week, taking its total generating capacity to 4,620MW, making it the world's largest single-location coal-fired plant in the private sector. China, Poland and Taiwan have three thermal power plants exceeding 5,000 MW but they are all state-owned, making Mundra also the fifth largest globally. 

Adani, which ventured into power generation in 2009-10, has become India's largest power generation company in the private sector and its current capacity is 15% more than the ultra mega power projects (UMPPs) being executed by Reliance Power and Tata Power in states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand. Even India's biggest state-owned power producer NTPC does not produce over 4000 MW of power in a single location. 

"When we started executing the power plant, our name didn't figure in Planning Commission's 2007-2012 five year plan period and now we contribute 10% of the planned target," Ravi Sharma, CEO, power business, Adani Power, told TOI. However, the issue of imported coal will continue to hound Adani Power as the plant is based on coal from Indonesia. 

Induction motor

An induction or asynchronous motor is an AC motor in which all electromagnetic energy is transferred by inductive coupling from a primary winding to a secondary winding, the two windings being separated by an air gap. In three-phase induction motors, that are inherently self-starting, energy transfer is usually from the stator to either a wound rotor or a short-circuited squirrel cage rotor. Three-phase cage rotor induction motors are widely used in industrial drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are also used extensively for smaller loads. Although most AC motors have long been used in fixed-speed load drive service, they are increasingly being used in variable-frequency drive (VFD) service, variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor loads being by far the most important energy saving applications for VFD service. Squirrel cage induction motors are most commonly used in both fixed-speed and VFD applications.

Principle of operation

In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motor's stator creates a magnetic field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an induction motor's rotor rotates at a slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor stator's magnetic field is therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces an opposing current in the induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary winding, when the latter is short-circuited or closed through an external impedance.The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor; in a manner similar to currents induced intransformer's secondary windings. These currents in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field. Due to Lenz's Law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the change in current through the windings. The cause of induced current in the rotor is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose this the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field. The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the applied load. Since rotation at synchronous speed would result in no induced rotor current, an induction motor always operates slower than synchronous speed. The difference between actual and synchronous speed or slip varies from about 0.5 to 5% for standard Design B torque curve induction motors. The induction machine's essential character is that it is created solely by induction instead of being separately excited as in synchronous or DC machines or being self-magnetized as in permanent magnet motors.

For these currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field (), or the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field as seen by the rotor (slip speed) and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called slip. Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form the linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion.

Synchronous speed

An AC motor's synchronous speed, , is the rotation rate of the stator's magnetic field, which is expressed in revolutions per minute as

 (RPM),

where  is the motor supply's frequency in Hertz and  is the number of magnetic poles. That is, for a six-pole three-phase motor with three pole-pairs set 120° apart,  equals 6 and  equals 1,000 RPM and 1,200 RPM respectively for 50 Hz and 60 Hz supply systems.

Slip

Typical torque curve as a function of slip, represented as 'g' here.

Slip, , is defined as the difference between synchronous speed and operating speed, at the same frequency, expressed in rpm or in percent or ratio of synchronous speed. Thus

where  is stator electrical speed,  is rotor mechanical speed. Slip, which varies from zero at synchronous speed and 1 when the rotor is at rest, determines the motor's torque. Since the short-circuited rotor windings have small resistance, a small slip induces a large current in the rotor and produces large torque. At full rated load, slip varies from more than 5% for small or special purpose motors to less that 1% for large motors. These speed variations can cause load-sharing problems when differently sized motors are mechanically connected. Various methods are available to reduce slip, VFDs often offering the best solution.

Rotation reversal

The method of changing the direction of rotation of an induction motor depends on whether it is a three-phase or single-phase machine. In the case of three phase, reversal is carried out by swapping connection of any two phase conductors. In the case of a single-phase motor it is usually achieved by changing the connection of a starting capacitor from one section of a motor winding to the other. In this latter case both motor windings are usually similar (e.g. in washing machines).

Power factor

The power factor of induction motors varies with load, typically from around 0.85 or 0.90 at full load to as low as 0.35 at no-load, due to stator and rotor leakage and magnetizing reactances. Power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors either on an individual motor basis or, by preference, on a common bus covering several motors. For economic and other considerations power systems are rarely power factor corrected to unity power factor. Power capacitors application with harmonic currents requires power system analysis to avoid harmonic resonance between capacitors and transformer and circuit reactances. Common bus power factor correction is recommended to minimize resonant risk and to simplify power system analysis.

Efficiency

Full load motor efficiency varies from about 85 to 97%, related motor losses being broken down roughly as follows:

• Friction and windage, 5% – 15%
• Iron or core losses, 15% – 25%
• Stator losses, 25% – 40%
• Rotor losses, 15% – 25%
• Stray load losses, 10% – 20%.

Various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher efficiency electric motors. There is existing and forthcoming legislation regarding the future mandatory use of premium-efficiency induction-type motors in defined equipment.

THERMAL POWER PLANT.........

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electricity. Some thermal power plants also deliver heat energy for industrial purposes, for district heating, or for desalination of water as well as delivering electrical power. A large part of human CO₂ emissions comes from fossil fueled thermal power plants; efforts to reduce these outputs are various and widespread.

Introductory overview

Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power plants burning coal, fuel oil, or natural gas are often called fossil-fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermal power plants have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use co-generation are sometimes referred to as conventional power plants.

Commercial electric utility power stations are usually constructed on a large scale and designed for continuous operation. Electric power plants typically use three-phase electrical generators to produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Large companies or institutions may have their own power plants to supply heating or electricity to their facilities, especially if steam is created anyway for other purposes. Steam-driven power plants have been used in various large ships, but are now usually used in large naval ships. Shipboard power plants usually directly couple the turbine to the ship's propellers through gearboxes. Power plants in such ships also provide steam to smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply electricity. Shipboard steam power plants can be either fossil fuel or nuclear. Nuclear marine propulsion is, with few exceptions, used only in naval vessels. There have been perhaps about a dozen turbo-electric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which powers anelectric motor for propulsion.

combined heat and power (CH&P) plants, often called co-generation plants, produce both electric power and heat for process heat or space heating. Steam and hot water lose energy when piped over substantial distance, so carrying heat energy by steam or hot water is often only worthwhile within a local area, such as a ship, industrial plant, or district heating of nearby buildings.

Efficiency

A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feed water heater.

The energy efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered as salable energy as a percent of theheating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48%. This efficiency is limited as all heat engines are governed by the laws of thermodynamics. The rest of the energy must leave the plant in the form of heat. Thiswaste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for district heating, it is called co-generation. An important class of thermal power station are associated with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies ofnatural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products.

The Carnot efficiency dictates that higher efficiencies can be attained by increasing the temperature of the steam. Sub-critical fossil fuel power plants can achieve 36–40% efficiency. Super critical designs have efficiencies in the low to mid 40% range, with new "ultra critical" designs using pressures of 4400 psi (30.3 M Pa) and multiple stage reheat reaching about 48% efficiency. Above the critical point for water of 705 °F (374 °C) and 3212 psi (22.06 M Pa), there is no phase transition from water to steam, but only a gradual decrease in density.

Current nuclear power plants must operate below the temperatures and pressures that coal-fired plants do, since the pressurized vessel is very large and contains the entire bundle of nuclear fuel rods. The size of the reactor limits the pressure that can be reached. This, in turn, limits their thermodynamic efficiency to 30–32%. Some advanced reactor designs being studied, such as the Very high temperature reactor, Advanced gas-cooled reactor and Super critical water reactor, would operate at temperatures and pressures similar to current coal plants, producing comparable thermodynamic efficiency.

Electricity cost

The direct cost of electric energy produced by a thermal power station is the result of cost of fuel, capital cost for the plant, operator labour, maintenance, and such factors as ash handling and disposal. Indirect, social or environmental costs such as the economic value of environmental impacts, or environmental and health effects of the complete fuel cycle and plant decommissioning, are not usually assigned to generation costs for thermal stations in utility practice, but may form part of an environmental impact assessment.

In fossil-fueled power plants, steam generator refers to a furnace that burns the fossil fuel to boil water to generate steam.

In the nuclear plant field, steam generator refers to a specific type of large heat exchanger used in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) to thermally connect the primary (reactor plant) and secondary (steam plant) systems, which generates steam. In a nuclear reactor called a boiling water reactor (BWR), water is boiled to generate steam directly in the reactor itself and there are no units called steam generators.

In some industrial settings, there can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called [[heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process. The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator.

Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids.

A fossil fuel steam generator includes an economizer, a steam drum, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, Air Preheater (AP), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack.

Feed water heating and deaeration

The feed water used in the steam boiler is a means of transferring heat energy from the burning fuel to the mechanical energy of the spinning steam turbine. The total feed water consists of recirculated condensate water and purified makeup water. Because the metallic materials it contacts are subject to corrosion at high temperatures and pressures, the makeup water is highly purified before use. A system of water softeners and ion exchange demineralizers produces water so pure that it coincidentally becomes an electrical insulator, with conductivity in the range of 0.3–1.0 microsiemens per centimeter. The make-up water in a 500 MW plant amounts to perhaps 120 US gallons per minute (7.6 L/s) to replace water drawn off from the boiler drums for water purity management, and to also offset the small losses from steam leaks in the system.

The feed water cycle begins with condensate water being pumped out of the condenser after traveling through the steam turbines. The condensate flow rate at full load in a 500 MW plant is about 6,000 US gallons per minute (400 L/s).

The water is pressurized in two stages, and flows through a series of six or seven intermediate feed water heaters, heated up at each point with steam extracted from an appropriate duct on the turbines and gaining temperature at each stage. Typically, in the middle of this series of feed water heaters, and before the second stage of pressurization, the condensate plus the makeup water flows through a deaerator^[7][8] that removes dissolved air from the water, further purifying and reducing its corrosiveness. The water may be dosed following this point with hydrazine, a chemical that removes the remaining oxygen in the water to below 5 parts per billion (ppb).^[vague] It is also dosed with pH control agents such asammonia or morpholine to keep the residual acidity low and thus non-corrosive.

Boiler operation

The boiler is a rectangular furnace about 50 feet (15 m) on a side and 130 feet (40 m) tall. Its walls are made of a web of high pressure steel tubes about 2.3 inches (58 mm) in diameter.

Pulverized coal is air-blown into the furnace through burners located at the four corners, or along one wall, or two opposite walls, and it is ignited to rapidly burn, forming a large fireball at the center. The thermal radiation of the fireball heats the water that circulates through the boiler tubes near the boiler perimeter. The water circulation rate in the boiler is three to four times the throughput. As the water in the boiler circulates it absorbs heat and changes into steam. It is separated from the water inside a drum at the top of the furnace. The saturated steam is introduced into superheat pendant tubes that hang in the hottest part of the combustion gases as they exit the furnace. Here the steam is superheated to 1,000 °F (540 °C) to prepare it for the turbine.

Plants designed for lignite (brown coal) are increasingly used in locations as varied as Germany, Victoria, Australia and North Dakota. Lignite is a much younger form of coal than black coal. It has a lower energy density than black coal and requires a much larger furnace for equivalent heat output. Such coals may contain up to 70% water and ash, yielding lower furnace temperatures and requiring larger induced-draft fans. The firing systems also differ from black coal and typically draw hot gas from the furnace-exit level and mix it with the incoming coal in fan-type mills that inject the pulverized coal and hot gas mixture into the boiler.

Plants that use gas turbines to heat the water for conversion into steam use boilers known as heat recovery steam generators (HRSG). The exhaust heat from the gas turbines is used to make superheated steam that is then used in a conventional water-steam generation cycle, as described in gas turbine combined-cycle plants section below.

Boiler furnace and steam drum

The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum and from there it goes through downcomers to inlet headers at the bottom of the water walls. From these headers the water rises through the water walls of the furnace where some of it is turned into steam and the mixture of water and steam then re-enters the steam drum. This process may be driven purely by natural circulation (because the water is the downcomers is denser than the water/steam mixture in the water walls) or assisted by pumps. In the steam drum, the water is returned to the downcomers and the steam is passed through a series of steam separators and dryers that remove water droplets from the steam. The dry steam then flows into the super heater coils.

The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal.

The steam drum (as well as the super heater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial start up.

Superheater

Fossil fuel power plants often have a superheater section in the steam generating furnace. The steam passes through drying equipment inside the steam drum on to the superheater, a set of tubes in the furnace. Here the steam picks up more energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves before the high pressure turbine.

Nuclear-powered steam plants do not have such sections but produce steam at essentially saturated conditions. Experimental nuclear plants were equipped with fossil-fired super heaters in an attempt to improve overall plant operating cost.

Steam condensing

The condenser condenses the steam from the exhaust of the turbine into liquid to allow it to be pumped. If the condenser can be made cooler, the pressure of the exhaust steam is reduced and efficiency of the cycle increases.

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat  exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes.^[ The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum.

For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 °C where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensible air into the closed loop must be prevented.

Typically the cooling water causes the steam to condense at a temperature of about 35 °C (95 °F) and that creates an absolute pressure in the condenser of about 2–7 kPa (0.59–2.1 inHg), i.e. a vacuum of about −95 kPa (−28.1 inHg) relative to atmospheric pressure. The large decrease in volume that occurs when water vapor condenses to liquid creates the low vacuum that helps pull steam through and increase the efficiency of the turbines.

The limiting factor is the temperature of the cooling water and that, in turn, is limited by the prevailing average climatic conditions at the power plant's location (it may be possible to lower the temperature beyond the turbine limits during winter, causing excessive condensation in the turbine). Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning.

The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.

The heat absorbed by the circulating cooling water in the condenser tubes must also be removed to maintain the ability of the water to cool as it circulates. This is done by pumping the warm water from the condenser through either natural draft, forced draft or induced draft cooling towers (as seen in the image to the right) that reduce the temperature of the water by evaporation, by about 11 to 17 °C (20 to 30 °F)—expelling waste heat to the atmosphere. The circulation flow rate of the cooling water in a 500 MW unit is about 14.2 m³/s (500 ft³/s or 225,000 US gal/min) at full load.

The condenser tubes are made of brass or stainless steel to resist corrosion from either side. Nevertheless they may become internally fouled during operation by bacteria or algae in the cooling water or by mineral scaling, all of which inhibit heat transfer and reduce thermodynamic efficiency. Many plants include an automatic cleaning system that circulates sponge rubber balls through the tubes to scrub them clean without the need to take the system off-line.^{[citation needed]}

The cooling water used to condense the steam in the condenser returns to its source without having been changed other than having been warmed. If the water returns to a local water body (rather than a circulating cooling tower), it is tempered with cool 'raw' water to prevent thermal shock when discharged into that body of water.

Another form of condensing system is the air-cooled condenser. The process is similar to that of a radiator and fan. Exhaust heat from the low pressure section of a steam turbine runs through the condensing tubes, the tubes are usually finned and ambient air is pushed through the fins with the help of a large fan. The steam condenses to water to be reused in the water-steam cycle. Air-cooled condensers typically operate at a higher temperature than water-cooled versions. While saving water, the efficiency of the cycle is reduced (resulting in more carbon dioxide per megawatt of electricity).

From the bottom of the condenser, powerful condensate pumps recycle the condensed steam (water) back to the water/steam cycle.

Reheater

Power plant furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is passed through these heated tubes to collect more energy before driving the intermediate and then low pressure turbines.

Air path

External fans re provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The Primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall.

The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any closing